Oil Spill Research Essay

I. OIL SPILL Oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. II. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM Oil spills create many problems throughout the world, including the United States. The impact on the ecosystem in an area can be severe. Many plants and animals suffer or are killed within a short time after the spill occurs. Many people spend their time and money cleaning up the oil. Scientists also spend their time and the government’s money trying to find different types of technology or methods that clean up oil spills. In the Philippines, the famous Guimaras Oil Spill has affected hundreds of kilometers of coastline and threatens rich fishing grounds. The spill has polluted fishing grounds, dive spots, national marine reserve and adversely affected marine sanctuaries and mangrove reserves in three out of five municipalities in Guimaras Island and reached the shores of Iloilo and Negros Occidental, causing what is considered as the worst oil spill in the Philippines. Oily sludge and dead wildlife have been washing up on beaches, with reefs, marine reserves and the tourist industry all affected. III. CAUSES AND SOURCES OF OIL SPILLS Oil spill is a type of pollution that occurs mostly on water as well as on land and can have devastating effects on plants, animal life and environment. It occurs mainly as a result of human activity like exploration and transport of oil and is the release of oil or liquid petroleum  hydrocarbon into the aquatic environment such as oceans and coastal waters and on land. Spills may occur of crude oil from tankers, oil rigs, platforms and oil wells as well as during the transport of the refined petroleum products in vessels and tankers. Illegal waste oil dumping into oceans by organizations who do not want to invest in the cost of degrading their waste oil also contributes to increasing oil spill. Natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes can also contribute to oil spills from oil rigs as well as during transport of vessels and tankers. Oil spills take place largely because there is a need and demand for oil as a source of energy. Oil is used in one way or another in our day to day activities. We use oil to fuel our cars, trucks, buses and so on as well as to heat or light up our homes. Oil is used extensively in industries to power large machinery and equipment. Oil Spills may happen for several reasons. 1. When oil tankers have equipment faults. When oil tankers break down, it may get stuck on shallow land. When the tanker is attempted to move out of shallow land, abrasion may cause a hole in the tanker that will lead to large amounts of oil being released into the oceanic bodies. However, although this form of oil spill is the most commonly known and has the highest media attention, only 2% of oil in water bodies is a result of this action. 2. From nature and human activities on land. The large majority of oil spilled is from natural seeps geological seeps from the ocean floor as well as leaks that occur when products using petroleum or various forms of oil are used on land, and the oil is washed off into water bodies. 3. Water Sports. Other causes of oil spills are spills by petroleum users of released oil. This happens when various water sports or water vehicles such as motorboats and jet skis leak fuel. 4. Drilling works carried out in sea. When drilling works carried out in the sea, the oil and petroleum used  for such activities are released into the sea, thus causing an oil spill. The most common cause of oil pollution by ships comes from what are called operational oil spills. These are caused mostly by human error or sometimes intentionally when the ship’s crew does not follow the strict regulations and break the law. At the bottom of the ship under the engines is a space called the bilge. It collects water, oil and grease. When the ship’s crew pumps out the engine room bilges, the oil is separated from the water. The waste oil is put into a special holding tank to be offloaded in the next port. The remaining water, which may have traces of oil, is pumped overboard through an oily water separator. This makes sure only the tiniest amount of permitted oil goes into the sea. The amount is so small it cannot be seen by the naked eye. If an oil slick can be seen behind a ship, it means that the ship has broken the law and has discharged more oil than is allowed. Other operational spills may happen when a ship is loading bunker oil or lubricating oil for its engines. A hose can break spilling oil. If someone is not watching the level of oil going into the ship’s tanks, the tanks could overflow. An operational oil spill can also happen after the crew of an oil tanker has cleaned the cargo tanks before loading a new cargo of crude oil. After a cargo oil tank has been cleaned with water and chemicals the oil residue will float on the wash water in the bottom of the cargo tank. This water can be siphoned off and put through an oily water separator leaving only cargo oil residue in the bottom of the cargo tank. The new crude oil cargo can be loaded on top of the remaining old cargo oil. However, sometimes the crew does the wrong thing and illegally pumps the oily waste overboard. IV. EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS Oil spills are considered form of pollution. The effects of oil spills can have wide ranging impacts that are often portrayed by the media as long lasting environmental disaster. The effects will depend on a variety of factors including the quantity and type of oil spilled and how it interacts with the marine environment. A. Effects of Oil Spill to the Environment Oil spills may impact the environment in various ways. First, the physical smothering of organisms which is caused by oils with a high viscosity, in other words heavy oils. Smothering will affect an organism’s physical ability to continue critical functions such as respiration, feeding and thermoregulation. Second, the chemical toxicity which is a characteristic of lighter chemical components which are more bio-available is absorbed into organs, tissues and cells, and can have sub-lethal or lethal toxic effects. Third, the ecological changes which is caused by the loss of key organisms with a specific function in an ecological community. They can be replaced by different species undertaking similar functions in which case the implications for the ecosystem as a whole may not be severe. However, more detrimental is the niche in the community being replaced with organisms performing completely different functions thereby altering the ecosystem dynamics. Oil spill can somehow results to loss of shelter or habitat through oiling or clean up operations. Oil spill can prove fatal for plant, animal and human life. The substance is so toxic that it can cause massive loss of species that live in the sea. Oil spill penetrates into the plumage and fur of birds, breaks down the insulating capabilities of feather which makes them heavier, disallow them to fly and kill them via poisoning or hypothermia. B. Effects of Oil Spill on Marine and Coastal Wildlife Marine and coastal wildlife exposed to oil suffer both immediate health problems and long-term changes to their physiology and behavior. Oil can cause temporary physical harm to animals like skin irritation, altering of  the immune system, reproductive or developmental damage, liver disease and other chronic effects such as cancer and direct mortality of wildlife. Oil Spills also affect marine plants. The oil forms a thick layer on the water surface, and this layer blocks out light and prevents gaseous exchange. When this happens, not only will the plants not be able to photosynthesize, animals underneath the affected area will find that the supply of oxygen slowly diminishes, and is unable to be continuously replenished by the environment. When plants cannot photosynthesize, they eventually die, leading to a vicious effect on the food chain, ultimately affecting all animals. Oil spills can impact wildlife directly through three primary pathways, namely: ingestion, absorption and inhalation. Ingestion happens when animals swallow oil particles directly or consume prey items that have been exposed to oil. Ingestion of oil or dispersants can cause gastrointestinal irritation, ulcers, bleeding, diarrhea, and digestive complications. These complications may impair the ability of animals to digest and absorb foods, which ultimately leads to reduced health and fitness. Absorption is when animals come into direct contact with oil. Absorption of oil or dispersants through the skin can damage the liver and kidneys, cause anemia, suppress the immune system, induce reproductive failure, and in extreme cases kill an animal. Fish and sea turtle embryos may grow more slowly than normal, leading to lower hatching rates and developmental impairments Inhalation takes place when animals breathe volatile organics released from oil or from â€Å"dispersants† applied by response teams in an effort to increase the rate of degradation of the oil in seawater. This commonly occurs among those species of wildlife that need to breathe air like manatees, dolphins, whales and sea turtles. Inhalation of these harmful materials can cause respiratory inflammation, irritation, emphysema, or pneumonia. Oil spills can also have indirect effects on wildlife by causing changes in behavior, namely: changes in foraging locations, increases in foraging time and disruptions to life cycles. Changes in foraging locations or the relocation of home ranges as animals search for new sources of food. If a spill causes direct mortality to the food resources of particular species, many individuals of this species will need to relocate their foraging activities to regions unaffected by the spill. This leads to increased competition for remaining food sources in more localized areas. Increase in foraging time happens when there are increases in the amount of time animals must spend foraging. Animals may need to make longer trips to find food in unfamiliar areas and they may need to forage on less preferred food that takes more time to acquire or that is digested less efficiently. Decreases in diet diversity due to lower food availability may lead to reduced overall health. Disruptions to natural life cycles may become apparent if particular life forms are more susceptible to the effects of oil than others. Eggs, larvae and juveniles of many species are more vulnerable to harmful effects from pollutants than adults. Changes in the relative numbers of individuals from different life stages within a species may lead to shifts in habitat use patterns which cause ripple effects up and down the food chain. C. Effects of Oil Spill on Economy One of the major effects of oil spill is seen on the economy. When precious crude oil or refined petroleum is lost, it affects the amount of petroleum and gas available for use. This means that more barrels have to be imported from other countries. Then the process of cleaning the oil spill which requires a lot of financing. The workers that are brought on board to clean up the spill face tremendous  health problems later in life as well. Their medical treatment has to be paid for and becomes the responsibility of the government. Putting all the methods of recovery into place and monitoring them takes away resources from other more important works and hits the economy in subtle but powerful ways. D. Effects of Oil Spill on Tourism Industry The local tourism industry suffers a huge setback as most of the tourists stay away from such places. Dead birds, sticky oil and huge tar balls become a common sight. Due to this, various activities such as sailing, swimming, rafting, fishing, parachute gliding cannot be performed. Industries that rely on sea water to carry on their day to day activities halt their operations till It gets cleared. V. RECOMMENDATION The petroleum industry undertakes many measures to reduce the likelihood of oil spills. Proactive technology includes blowout preventers, which cut off the pump pressure in case of an accident, and increased hull strength on oil tankers. These measures help to protect both the environment and the oil companies themselves, which often lose a great deal of profit and public image in the event of a spill. A. Recommendations to Prevent Spills Caused by Human Error at Oil Handling Facilities These recommendations focus on management support for spill prevention programs, commitment of sufficient resources to such programs, and commitments to meeting or exceeding regulatory standards, using redundant safety systems, discouraging risk taking, and establishing annual performance benchmarks. Implementation of formal risk assessment and correction programs, and employee involvement, accountability, and performance incentives are also recommended. Recommendations on work hour limitations are included, as well as  recommendations for corporate programs to ensure physical competency of employees responsible for an activity which could result in an oil spill. Security system inspections are recommended, as are written emergency procedures and drilling of those procedures. B. Recommendations to Prevent Oil Spills by Boat Owners, Marinas, and Boatyards These recommendations stress regular and careful boat maintenance, knowledge of best management practices for fueling, oil changes, or overhauls, and responsible management and disposal practices for used oil and oily wastes. This section also includes recommendations that marina operators implement effective runoff controls, provide technical assistance and education for their boat owners, and develop written agreements with those boat owners committing them to implement best management practices. C. Recommendations to Prevent Spills from Tankers and Tank Barges It is recommended that employee involvement and communications are addressed, and redundant safety systems and annual performance benchmarks are recommended. Several international standards are recommended for certification of management policies and programs. Regarding watch practices, recommendations about covering standards for navigation watch, anchor watch, engineering watch and security rounds are included. D. Recommendations to Prevent Oil Spills Caused by Human Error It is recommended that a tanker or tank barge owner/operator ensure that no crew member is under the influence of alcohol or illicit drugs a coast jurisdiction’s waters, and that regular physical exams and a policy requiring notification of use of prescription medications be required. Also, tank barge tow vessel masters should maintain a record of all crew members, and should have three licensed officers or tow operators on board during  transit of coastal waters. E. Recommendations to Prevent Human Error Spills During Bunkering Operations Persons In Charge (PICs) of bunkering operations on both the receiving and delivering vessels or facilities should emphasize proper procedures and adequate communications during all phases of a bunkering operation, especially with regard to a pre-loading plan, a pre-transfer conference, voice and visual communications, emergency procedures, and safe access between vessels, or between a vessel and a facility. PICs must ensure that the duties of all personnel involved in a bunkering operation are clearly defined and that training is provided. Furthermore, it is recommend that owners and operators of vessels and facilities involved in bunkering operations within a jurisdiction’s waters be required to demonstrate compliance with these standards by making relevant documents (logs, written policies and procedures, standing orders, pre-loading plans, declaration of inspection forms, and training materials) available upon request. The creation of emergency response plans that entails oil transporters to have detailed written plans on what actions they will take if a spill occurs should always be encouraged. The Government should pay more attention to the activities of militants engaged in oil bunkering as some of the spills in the oil rich region occur due to this. In addition, Government should ensure that regulatory bodies have the authority to sanction oil companies who spill oil in the region. More and stricter laws with stiffer penalties should be passed so that oil companies are more mindful of their activities and the spills that they cause. Moreover, a shift from the dependence on oil to other sources of revenue such as agriculture will make it more likely for stricter laws and stiffer penalties for organizations guilty of oil spills to be implemented. Deterrence in oil pollution is the implementation of Republic Act 9483 or the  Oil Pollution Compensation Act which penalizes oil pollution damage and seeks to immediately compensate those who suffer from it. This is to secure the enjoyment and protection of our marine wealth. VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY The Chemistry of Oil Spills http://oilsplat.wordpress.com/about/ WiseGeek: What Causes Oil Spills, Mary McMahon http://www.wisegeek.org/what-causes-oil-spills.htm The Ships and the Marine Environment-Main Causes of Oil Pollution by Ships http://www.ausmepa.org.au/ships-and-the-marine-environment/5/causes-of-oil-pollution.htm Recommendations to Prevent Oil Spills http://www.oilspilltaskforce.org/docs/project_reports/HumanFactorRec.pdf Stopping Oil Spills: Environmental Quality/Recovery of Spilled Oil, Shivani B., Christine C., Kristen D. http://istf.ucf.edu/ISTFSites/98/98325/web1.htm Sarah Toms (15 August 2006). â€Å"Oil spill threatens Philippines†. BBC News. Retrieved 15 July 2013. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4795649.stm Holly K. Ober (May 2010). :Effects of Oil Spills on Marine and Coastal Wildlife† http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw330 Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response http://www.epa.gov/osweroe1/docs/oil/edu/oilspill_book/chap5.pdf Conserve Energy Future: Oil Spill,Rinkesh Kukreja http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/effects-of-oil-spills.php Environmental Effects of Oil Spills http://www.itopf.com/knowledge-resources/documents-guides/environmental-effects/ How Oil Harms Animals and Plants in Marine Environments http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/how-oil-harms animals-and-plants.html

Disaster Recovery

Disaster recovery is the planning and implementation of a process whereby a company can recover from a catastrophic information technology failure. The three main categories of disaster exposure include natural threads and hazards (including hurricanes, flooding, earthquakes and fire), technical and mechanical hazards (such as power outages, gas leaks, accidental or deliberate Halon discharges, or chemical spills) and human activities and threats (like computer error, loss of records, vandalism, sabotage or epidemic) (Rike, 2003).The goal of disaster recovery planning in information technology is to restore access to business data and system resources as quickly as possible, as well as to minimize data loss and physical resource loss. Disaster recovery must address each of the main categories of threat, assess the likely impact and the chance of occurrence of each one and plan reactions and facilities accordingly. Disaster recovery is not only important for the IT-based company, but for any company which is vulnerable to natural disaster or malicious attack.Proper planning of a disaster recovery framework will increase response time, minimize data loss and speed recovery and regained access to data and computing resources. Disaster recovery planning for information technology includes: data assurance with a proper backup and restore procedure; network continuity; intrusion detection and response; proper facilities planning including air conditioning, fire detection and control and environmental sensors; and personnel training in order to ensure proper response.A business's disaster recovery framework may extend beyond its information technology into facilities management, human resources and other operations. Disaster recovery is a relatively new facet of information technology planning which has rapidly become more important as businesses have become more dependent on technology resources. Many modern businesses come to a standstill without their technology ba se, and this can be devastating to the business. Rike (2003) noted that 93% of companies which suffer a major data loss go out of business within five years following that loss.However, according to Rike, many companies are unprotected from this danger – two surveys noted that only 35% of small and midsize businesses have a disaster recovery framework in place, while only 36% of all businesses and government offices have such a framework. Disaster Recovery Case Studies One of the first discussions of disaster recovery in information technology occurred after the 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan. Garland and Morimoto (1996) provide an account of the outcome of the Kobe University disaster recovery framework on their IT infrastructure, as well as the effects of the earthquake itself.The Kobe earthquake, referred to as the â€Å"Great Hanshin Earthquake Disaster†, struck the Kobe area in the early morning hours of January 17, 1995. Aftershocks and fires worsened the damage c aused by the earthquake, cutting off communications and electricity to the region. Transportation routes were completely blocked due to collapsed roadways and damaged rail lines. The earthquake, which measured at 7. 2 on the Richter scale and left almost 5,400 dead as well as 400,000 homeless in its wake, was one of the worst disasters that have occurred in modern Japan.The university, where the authors were teaching at the time, lost two professors and thirty nine students, as well as all its laboratory animals. Data loss was extensive, and computing equipment loss was exacerbated by physical damage caused by falling furniture and books. The university's telephone and fax connections were completely cut off. However, despite the damage to the university's infrastructure and community, Internet connectivity was able to be restored within a few hours of the earthquake.The resulting email access (there were no extensive Web-based resources at the time) allowed students and staff outsi de communication, a means to reassure loved ones and provided a connection to government disaster recovery resources. University personnel also used cellular phones, a then-nascent technology, to connect to the outside world. Kobe University was using the best available technology at the time, which allowed for quick recovery of the lightweight machines.The IT personnel at the university noted specifically that the hardest-hit IT resources were the older-style, stationary, heavyweight servers and storage units, rather than the newer equipment which was designed to be moved and handled. Specific successes of the Kobe University disaster recovery included: use of alternate routes of communication, broadcast communication to all personnel involved (including students and staff), fast restoration of outside connectivity, setup of alternate email access points and gateways to continue to provide communication and the use of more robust, newer hardware resources.Some of the problems with the university's disaster recovery were lack of system-wide backup plan leading to widespread data loss, insecure physical premises leading to damage, including fall damage to computer equipment placed inappropriately close to other hazards and environmental system failure leading to the death of the lab animals. Because Kobe University is the first instance of formalized study of disaster recovery in information technology, there are a number of questions which arise from the planning and execution of the recovery.What are the priorities of the business or organization when planning? How do you put into place organization-wide policies, such as data backup, which reduce the risk of failure? How do you deal with facilities and functions (such as public utility infrastructure) that are out of your control? A more recent demonstration of the importance of disaster preparedness and recovery was Hurricane Katrina, in 2005.Chenoweth, Peters and Naremore (2006) analyzed the disaster prepa redness and recovery response of a New Orleans hospital during the hurricane and the flooding that followed. East Jefferson General Hospital, located in Jefferson parish, was one of three hospitals in New Orleans to remain open during and after the storm. The hospital planned for a two to three day emergency situation; staffers brought appropriate supplies for only a few days.There were over 3,000 people, including staff, patients and community members, as well as a handful of pets, sheltering at the hospital by the time the storm hit New Orleans on August 28. The hospital's IT staff worked quickly to move critical equipment out of harm's way – they moved data center equipment to upper floors and PCs and other equipment away from windows, printed out hard copies of patient records, contact information and other vital data, and set up a hospital command post with PCs, telephones and fax machines for outside connectivity.The hospital itself did not sustain a high degree of phys ical damage in the storm, in contrast with Kobe University. However, the infrastructure of the city itself was virtually destroyed, with electricity, telephone and water cut off, roads blocked and food and drinking water supplies tight. The hospital was isolated from the rest of the world for over a week as external recovery crews worked. East Jefferson Community Hospital did have a written disaster recovery framework in place prior to Hurricane Katrina.According to Chenoweth et al (2006), the IT department had a hot site arrangement with SunGard; weekly backups of the hospital's data were stored in a local tape vault, occasionally retrieved for safe storage in SunGard's offsite facility in New Jersey. Unfortunately, the evacuation of the vault's staff left the tapes inaccessible. During the storm, the hospital lost first grid power and then generator power; communications were lost as the Bell South CO, then the onsite CO, and finally the hospital's Cox internet cable connection we nt down.The rapidly changing situation, according to the authors, forced a reprioritization of IT resources and efforts from internal systems maintenance to restoring and maintaining communication with the outside world. The IT staff found a usable dialup line and set up email access using some of the PCs on-site; they also leveraged spotty cellular service and messaging services to maximize communications, which allowed them to coordinate with rescue teams and officials and arrange for food, water and generator deliveries. The internal telephone system was also utilized to maintain communication throughout the hospital.A secondary concern to the hospital, according to Chenoweth et al (2006), was its employees; particularly, circumventing the normal payroll system, which was inaccessible, in order to provide funds to employees who were suffering high expenses due to evacuation. This was accomplished by using the Internet to provide a funds transfer to each employee approximating the ir last paycheck. Similar workarounds were created for accounts receivable, with employees manually entering charges and emailing them to the system provider for processing.The hospital's outsourced IT provider also had its own issues to deal with; it had to locate missing employees (which was accomplished within three days by using a broadcast approach of Internet connections and message boards and contacting family and friends of the staffers; this is in contrast to many other companies, which were still struggling to locate employees by November) and prevent employee burnout by arranging for relief staffers. East Jefferson Community Hospital's IT infrastructure was back up and running only a week after the storm hit, and began providing patient services immediately.Its disaster recovery framework, as well as quick thinking in repositioning the framework when it became clear that it did not match the profile of the disaster it was supposed to counter, was a clear factor in the hos pital's fast recovery and return to service. Following the experience during Katrina, the hospital's IT staff investigated its disaster recovery framework and cited a number of changes which should be made, including increased emergency communications capacity, maintaining high-speed Internet access and implementing an automatic switching mechanism should one generator go down again.Disaster Recovery Framework Design The experiences of Kobe University and East Jefferson Community Hospital clearly indicate the need for robust disaster recovery planning. While disaster recovery is not always a matter of life and death as it was in these two cases, it can often mean the difference between a company that recovers successfully and one that is driven out of business by a critical failure. How can a company begin to develop a disaster recovery framework, and how extensive does this framework need to be?Benton (2007) suggested that the disaster recovery framework must begin with a formal bu siness impact assessment. This assessment draws on the knowledge and experience of the IT staff and the CIO to determine what the critical pieces of IT infrastructure are for a given company. A business impact analysis (BIA) is a way in which the contribution or importance of a given business resource can be analyzed and expressed in dollars and cents terms, in order to allow corporate officers to determine the correct emphasis during disaster recovery.The BIA also includes subjective observations of the resource's importance, giving an overall view of the organization to the decision makers. The second piece of the decision-making process is the risk analysis. What kinds of disasters are likely, Benton asked, and how much damage are they likely to cause should they occur? Exactly how likely is a disaster to happen? Benton urged caution on this question; as he pointed out, the risk of being unprepared is potentially far greater than the cost of preparedness.Rike (2003) discussed the risk analysis that should be performed before beginning a business inventory analysis and disaster recovery planning. Risks should be analyzed in three different dimensions: the type of risk, the likelihood of the risk and the magnitude of the risk. Rike divided risk types into three general categories: natural threats and hazards, technical and mechanical hazards and human activities and threats. Rike noted that it is not always possible to predict some types of disasters, such as human activities, while some activities, such as common weather phenomena, can be planned for in advance.The third dimension of risk analysis is the magnitude of the potential risk. Rike identified three categories of magnitude: community-wide disasters, such as the Kobe earthquake and Hurricane Katrina as discussed above; localized to a building or a group of buildings, such as water leak or electricity outage; or individual, or only affecting a single organization, department or worker. A disgruntled w orker sabotaging data exemplifies this situation. Rike (2003) outlined a proposed schedule and method for designing a disaster recovery framework.The first step, obtaining top management buy-in and support, is critical in order to fund and implement the disaster recovery framework. It is also necessary for top staff to be informed of disaster recovery procedures because they will be ultimately responsible for its implementation. The second step Rike suggested was to establish a planning committee staffed with personnel from facilities, information technology and other critical departments who will be responsible for planning and implementing the policy. The third step in Rike’s method is to perform a risk assessment and conduct a BIA.The risk assessment should include determining the type of risk the behavior is subject to and its likelihood, the consequences of each scenario, the estimated cost of each scenario, replacement cost of data, equipment and staff recovery versus d isaster framework implementation, and the potential risk of the worst-case scenario occurring. Rike’s fourth step is determination of critical business facilities – business equipment, connectivity through Internet and phone lines, internal phone system, fire and fumigant systems and other facilities required to continue to operate.This step also includes the determination of disaster recovery procedures and documentation, vital records and personnel. Step five is the procurement and preparation of disaster recovery facilities, including offsite storage facilities, inventory of critical documents, policy and procedure manuals, master lists of staff contact information, vendor information, account numbers and other vital information, and a review of security and environmental systems. Step six is preparation of a written framework, taking into account the information gathered in steps one through five.Rike recommended that a standard format and software package should b e used to write the framework, rather than a customized solution. The framework should then be reviewed on a frequent basis to ensure continued alignment with company business and goals as well as changes to potential risk. The final step in Rike’s methodology is to test the written framework in order to make sure it is feasible. In order to begin developing a disaster preparedness framework, Benton suggested a company-wide IT inventory, detailing application, storage and server assets.These assets could then be ranked into categories depending on the importance of the business application and replacement cost of the equipment. There are two main ranking criteria. Recovery time objective (RTO) is the optimal maximum amount of time between disaster and service resumption. Recovery point objective (RPO) is the maximum amount of allowable data loss. Benton recommended a multi-tier system; at the top level should be no data loss and minimal downtime, or an RTO and RPO of close to 0, reserved for mission-critical services and business units that provide immediate revenue for the company.Business units should then be ranked in descending order according to their revenue generating potential and criticality. At its lowest level, Benton suggested that the RTO could be extended out to 72-96 hours. Rike (2003) identified key questions to use when conducting the BIA, including â€Å"how would the department in question operate if online systems were not available? † and â€Å"what is the minimum space required for the department to operate? † Benton prioritized two critical preplanning steps for disaster recovery.The first was data consolidation, or optimizing the protection of data by assembling all critical data in a single location for ease of backup and recovery. This can be established by use of a centralized file server in a small organization or use of a SAN or NAS scheme in a larger one. The second prerequisite, which can be more complicated than storage consolidation, is server consolidation. This step can be complicated because the performance profile of servers can vary, and processing and network access can vary between them. Benton further discussed the complexities of disaster recovery of data.Among the problems he noted are difficulties with logical consistency and order of recovery. If standard file backup technologies are used, these backups may not be logically consistent when they are recovered because they will be recovered to a slightly different point in time. Newer snapshot technologies can alleviate this problem, however. Another inconsistency issue is data replication, which may be interrupted when the write heads lose power. Finally, order of recovery will be important because some applications and servers will be dependent on other servers being restored first in order to maintain logical consistency.Benton also noted that disaster recovery should be maintained separately from periodic backups and arc hival procedures, because data storage procedures for periodic backups and archival procedures may not be adequate or appropriate for disaster recovery. Finally, Benton remarked that hardware designated for disaster recovery should be exercised in a non-emergency situation in order to ensure that it is properly configured and connected. Rike (2003) recommended a course of action in the event that the disaster recovery framework needs to be put into action following a physical disaster.The first step in Rike’s method is to perform a damage assessment in order to determine the scope and type of damage, the size of the area affected and what assets have been damaged. Rike’s second step is damage control by environment stabilization. In the event of physical damage, the damage can become permanent very quickly. Rike suggested that the physical environment must be stabilized by drying the air, removing water and soot particles, restoring air conditioning and whatever other cleanup can be performed.She suggested that material such as power generators, sump pumps to remove standing water, high-powered fans, plastic sheeting, absorbent materials and other cleanup equipment should be kept on hand in order to speed environmental stabilization. Once the environment is stable, Rike prioritized activation of the emergency team as defined in the disaster recovery framework, and then restoration and cleanup; this cleanup can in some cases be performed by business staff, but in some cases, such as a toxic spill or mold contamination, should be handled by specially trained professionals.While Rike discussed physical disaster recovery resulting from primarily natural or mechanical threats, Patnaik and Panda (2003) discussed data recovery from a malicious attack, addressing the human threat perspective. Malicious attack on data and application resources can come either from within the business (most often from a disgruntled employee) or outside the business (hacker s or industrial spies). As Patnaik and Panda noted, it is not necessarily possible to distinguish a malicious attack from a legitimate data transaction.According to the authors, requirements for protecting data from malicious attack include protection from unauthorized users, detection of hostile activities and damage recovery. Unfortunately, as the authors noted, in the case of a database storage system it is not always possible, even with these precautions in place, to catch all potential malicious transactions. This is particularly problematic when the malicious actor is someone who has trusted access to a system. If a malicious transaction is committed to the database, it is then seen as legitimate and may be propagated to other areas of the database through normal interactions.In order to prevent this spread, a quick recovery is required. Unfortunately, the authors noted, the size of database logs often precludes a fast recovery, due to extended periods of time spent accessing and applying the logs. In order to remedy this, Patnaik and Panda proposed a partitioned or segmented log solution which allows recovery of a malicious transaction to access only one of the log segments in order to perform recovery, rather than the full logs. This increases recovery time by an order of magnitude over applying the full redo log, according to the authors.Disaster recovery is a relatively inexpensive method of assuring business continuity in the wake of a natural, physical or human event or attack. The costs of not having a disaster recovery framework is, as Rike (2003) noted, extremely high – 93% of businesses which suffer a major data loss go out of business within five years. The experiences of Kobe University and East Jefferson Community Hospital demonstrate the value of a disaster recovery framework, as well as the importance of examining priorities when deciding on the framework.While physical premises may be covered by insurance in some cases, the same is not typically true for data, institutional knowledge, continued business and personnel. In order to implement a data recovery framework, one can follow Rike’s (2003) methodology, beginning with gaining the support of senior staff and the appointment of a disaster recovery planning committee, performing risk analysis, a BIA, and determining and putting in writing a disaster recovery framework and finally testing the framework to ensure its viability.These steps will help to protect the business in the event of a disaster, whether it is natural, mechanical or human in origin, and whether it is localized or community-wide. Research Proposal In order for a business to determine whether a disaster recovery framework is appropriate for their business, as well as to analyze the relative risks and costs of implementing a disaster recovery framework and replacing lost business assets and personnel in the event of a disaster. Following steps three and four of Rike’s methodology will provide a determination of utility of a disaster preparedness framework for a given business.In order to perform this analysis, the assent of senior staff members should be obtained. This analysis can be conducted in the following manner. First, perform Rike’s third step, that of risk analysis and assessment. This assessment should evaluate the potential threat to the business and its effects in three dimensions: type of threat (natural, mechanical or human), magnitude of threat (individualized, localized, community-wide), and likelihood (certain, likely, unlikely, extremely unlikely). Questions that should be asked during this risk assessment include: What is the natural environmental pattern of the geographic area? Is the area subject to earthquakes, flooding, hurricanes or other natural phenomena?†¢ Are current environmental control provisions such as Halon systems and fire detection systems up to date? †¢ How likely is attack by a human threat? Does the co mpany tend to have disgruntled workers, or no? How much access does any individual worker have to the data and application servers? †¢ What is the replacement cost of data, equipment and staff versus the cost of disaster recovery framework implementation? What is the potential for the worst-case scenario to occur?After the risk analysis is complete, step four of Rike’s methodology, determination of critical business resources, should be implemented. This step includes asking the following questions: †¢ What is the minimum amount of servers, Internet connectivity, communications capacity, space, documentation, data and staff the company can continue to operate on? †¢ Who is the critical staff? What is the critical data? How many single points of failure are there?Step four of Rike’s methodology, the business impact analysis or BIA, is the final method of analysis in determining the benefit of the disaster recovery framework to an individual organization. The BIA examines each aspect of a business’s function and determines which functions are critical to the business’s continued operation, as well as which functions can be brought back online after the most critical operations are stabilized. This examination should include all facets of a business, including seemingly unimportant functions such as facilities management, janitorial access and human resources records access.Business functions should be ranked on a matrix of direct and immediate benefit to the business, determined by their immediate monetary value as well as subjective perceptions of importance. Using a combination of a risk and cost analysis to determine the likelihood of risk occurring and the cost of implementation versus non-implementation, a business needs analysis to determine critical business requirements, and a BIA to determine critical business functions, it will be possible to determine whether a disaster recovery framework makes sense for a gi ven business, as well as what type of disaster recovery framework should be implemented.It is the author’s contention that disaster recovery planning makes sense for every business, and should be implemented at a level that will ensure business continuity and hasten recovery should a disaster occur. Customization of disaster recovery planning should be done using the risk, cost and business needs analysis to create a framework that will allow the business to secure its own interests in the event of a small or large disaster.No disaster recovery framework is perfect, and there can always be situations that remain unconsidered, as East Jefferson Community Hospital’s experience showed. However, having an initial disaster recovery plan in place made it easier to reprioritize resource allocation when there were unexpected issues. As von Moltke remarked, â€Å"no plan survives contact with the enemy† – but that is no reason not to plan.

Describe how the debate concerning human origins began, how new Essay

Describe how the debate concerning human origins began, how new descoveries added to the debate, and explain how you see the argument concerning our human origi - Essay Example against those that support creationism, a religious-based belief that attributes the creation of Earth, humanity and the universe to a God or deity (Hayward, 1998). The creation versus evolution debate is most prevalent in the conservative regions of the United States, where Creationism is believed to have strengthened after World War I as a consequence of stories that became popular at the time and told of the German aggression being a result of their belief in the concept of "survival of the fittest" introduced by Charles Darwin (Numbers and Coleman, 2007). After this, the situation worsened in many cases when several US states passed laws against the teaching of evolution in public schools and others went a step further by introducing the teaching of creationism instead. It is so that the study of evolution was not included until the late 1960s in textbooks of many US sates. Even during the 1980s, creationism was quite prevalent in certain states (Arkansas and Louisiana), where creationism and evolution obtained equal teaching time in public shools' curricula. This seriously opposes the separation between State and Church recognized in the Constitution, which would avoid interference in each other's issues. The legislation passed for the teaching of creationism seriously contravenes the First Amendment, which states as follows: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof..." Consequently, in 1987 the Supreme Court declared this law illegal and an unconstitutional intrusion of religion in public schools. Paleoanthropology Evolution is supported by the study of paleoanthropology. Until the 19th century, the similarity between apes and humans had been sorely discussed and, based purely on morphological similarities, chimpanzees and gorillas were thought to be our closest relatives. In fact, some scientists of the time believed that humans and apes shared a common ancestor and that fossils of this ancestor would eventually be found in Africa. It was not, however, until the discovery of Neanderthal man in 1856 was made and Darwin published On the Origin of Species a few years later, that the concept of evolutionary theory was first introduced. A few years later, paleoanthropology, the discipline that studies ancient populations using fossil evidence in the form of petrified bones and foot prints, as well as the remains of tools and forms of habitation, began. Although there had been a series of minor findings in the 1830s, it was not until 1924 that the first remains of a hominid were discovered in Africa. The fossils were thought to be part of the skeleton of an Australopithecus africanus, a species with a small skull that contained a small but, contrary to those of apes, rounded brain, like that of a human. Additionally,

Manegerial Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Manegerial Finance - Essay Example On the other hand management accounting is expected to provide information for analysis and use by internal uses of an organization like the senior executives and managers. Different data and financial data are required by different user groups. External users are more interested in the financial status of the company and they analyze the financial information presented with the general economic trend and the conditions of the industry in which the organization operates. Financial accounting makes information available on the financial transaction that have taken place in the past and this information is analyzed by the investors and creditors to assess overall performance of the company in which they have staked their funds. The internal users of the financial information require different types of information which they use to assess the internal performance of the company in various disciplines. The internal users also need non-financial information like the movements of competitors, levels of customer satisfaction which are assimilated and analyzed to help the growth of the company in the proper direction. As against the scope of financial accounting which deals more with historical data, management accounting deals with both past and present data. ... ation and rely on them, the financial accounting is made subject to the regulations of governing bodies like Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). In contrast the management accounting is not subject to any regulatory measures being presented by any agencies. The reason for absence of regulatory control is that management accounting prepares information only for the internal users and therefore is not subjected to any regulations. Since there is involvement of any public interest no need to protect the information has been felt. Periodicity of Reporting Financial accounting bases its reporting on the basis of historical data and therefore there is the necessity for making periodical reports. The financial reporting is done for different periodicity like monthly, quarterly, and annual reporting. Management accounting reports on the other hand are made for continuous periods so that the internal users would be able to evaluate the past and present performances of various functional divisions and departments. There may be some urgent needs of management accounting reports to evaluate a capital expenditure project or some other investment decisions. Forecasts about the future prospects and growth of business of the organization also need management accounting reports. Therefore there is the continuous need of the management accounting information by the internal users. (Edmonds et al, 2006) The differences in financial accounting and management accounting can be summarized in the following table: Criteria Financial Accounting Management Accounting Primary users External Internal Primary organization focus Whole organization Parts or subsections; specific areas Information characteristics Must be GAAP; based

The July plotters of 1944 were not courageous men whose purpose was Essay

The July plotters of 1944 were not courageous men whose purpose was honourable but reckless men who acted out of their own self interest How valid is this assessment of the July Plot of 1944 - Essay Example storted political circumstances of the country in Germany wiped out the war situation and Hitler’s public interaction has reduced in monthly visit in Berlin. The leaders of the conspiracy included Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, General Ludwig Beck, Lieutenant Colonel Claus, and Count Schenk von Stauffenberg, The conspirators like Himmler and Stauffenberg were suspicious and they had their own personal intentions than the unified goal. Stauffenberg took the responsibility to carry out the assassination attempt. During the time of German Campaign against Soviet Union, Stauffenberg became frustrated with Hitler’s misrule. Beginning of his career Stauffenberg has revealed his loyalty and responsibility to Hitler and to Nazi Germany. But towards the end of 1930s, like others Stauffenberg began to think that Hitler’s misrule pull the nation in to the disaster. Stauffenberg’s plan was to plant a briefcase with the bomb in Hitler’s conference room. Stauffenber g’s words reveal his will power and intention. The article remarks;† In August 1942, he told a friend: â€Å"They are shooting Jews in masses. These crimes must not be allowed to continue† (Peter, 2004 P. 2). After the unsuccessful attempt of July plot Stauffenberg was honored as a courageous warrior who made an unending fight against Hitler’s despotic rule. A dreadful reality is that the purpose of the conspirators has changed and it came to be observed by some of them as achieving the military honors themselves. Most of them have worked under Hitler’s administration in their past. Martin Collier, Philip Pedley state that; â€Å"In Berlin, the conspiracy was paralyzed by indecision and vacillation† (Martin Collier& Philip Pedley, 2005 p. 122) Field Marshal Witzleben was a soldier who participated in the event of July plot 1944. Witzleben and others were found guilty and sentenced to hang. His dreadful death proves that he was a courageous fighter. The following comment about the conspirators underlines

The Role of Nurses in the Prevention, Care, and Management of Suicide Essay

The Role of Nurses in the Prevention, Care, and Management of Suicide - Essay Example The first section of the paper identifies the nature and symptoms of suicide. Nurses should be aware of the nature, signs and symptoms of suicide and the factors contributing to suicide risk. Determining who are at risk should be done immediately to prevent suicide, thus the second part of this paper determines the preventive measures that must be done to control the situation. The third part discusses the proper care for patients at risk of suicide. Although care for patients with suicide tendency is the main responsibility of psychologists and psychiatrists, nurses contribute to the wellness of the patients and the continuity of the recovery program. The fifth part suggests follow up actions that nurses can perform to ensure complete recovery of patients with suicide tendency. The sixth part gives the conclusion and summarises all the important points in the prevention, care and management of suicide cases in the hospital setting. The role of the nurse in the prevention, care, and management of suicide among hospital patients is very significant. The nurses are the ones who have the most direct and frequent contact with the patients, thus they may affect the mood and emotional condition of patients with suicide tendency. The case of suicidal patients is very sensitive, thus nurses should be equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills to identify and care for patients attempting to commit suicide.... e case of suicidal patients is very sensitive, thus nurses should be equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills to identify and care for patients attempting to commit suicide. The number of suicide cases in the UK has decreased in the past years (Joint Commission Resources 2007). Nevertheless, this does not make suicide less of a problem. The World Health Organisation declared suicide as a major global health concern, accounting for approximately one million cases worldwide annually (Voice of America 2009). Currently, it is one of the three leading causes of death for young people under 25. This rate makes suicide a serious problem in the field of health care. To address this issue, patients with suicide tendency should be identified right away for counselling and other relevant interventions. In the hospital level, nurses can help to address the problem by assessing and reporting the behaviour of patients. Therefore, it is necessary for nurses to know the signs of suicide to ef fectively act and elicit efforts from the concerned people to initiate prevention of suicide attempts and manage proper care of the patient. Currently, only a few nursing studies have addressed suicide specifically (Fitzpatrick and Wallace 2005; Bryan and Rudd 2011). Study and assessment of suicide cases revealed poor patient assessment, limited communication, and knowledge deficit of professional staff about suicide. In this regard, it is imperative for every nurse or health worker in general to be aware of the behavioural signs that can manifest as part of suicide risk. Also, it is important to understand the nature of suicide ideation and the factors that could lead a person to commit suicide. Suicide Prevention Suicide ideation or tendency results usually from depression. When people

Taiwan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Taiwan - Essay Example the fresh vegetables (turnips, carrots, cabbage) and other ingredients like spices (ginger, anise, salt, sesame oil and chilli peppers) with variety of sauces involve nutritional preserving methods of cooking like sautà ©ing, boiling, steaming and stir frying. Taiwanese eat frequently and usually three to four times a day but commonly breakfast, lunch evening snack and dinner are taken. However, they also take snacks in the evening before dinner and the most popular of them are Guan Cai ban, Yu Wan (fish ball) and meat ball and rice noodles, Yong Ho soya bean milk, chicken rice (Ji Rou Fen), pearl milk tea and etc. In Taiwan food is usually shared among the family members during breakfast, lunch, evening snack and dinner. All the family members eat and dine together and at a same time from the traditional hot pot in winters. Since the teachings and values of Confusion (obligation of individuals to one another) are very deeply rooted in the region. Therefore, women of the house are usually given the responsibility to prepare meals for the family. Families usually eat in their living rooms, but since after industrialization wave a popular way to eat was bien dang, this box contains all varieties of food like beans, vegetables, fish or pork with noodles or rice. The price is cheap in comparison to homemade meals; therefore, eating outside is much more common in Taiwan than any other place. There are many varieties available in bien dang like chicken, pork, vegetable they occur due to diverse ethnic nature of the region. Super markets do not sell their goods on whole sale prices that is why grocery becomes expensive for the buyers and they opt for readymade meals like bien dang which are cheap. Staple food noodles, rice or any other would be consumed with chop sticks. Meals are served in round small bowls usually especially if it’s liquid plus meat food. The bowl is kept close to the chin and chop sticks are used to eat the firm parts of the food. Since I grew